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What is music?
We are all aware that music and "atmosphere" go together. We might put on relaxing music for a quiet romantic dinner, but listen to something livelier while doing some physical work or exercise, or when out socialising in larger groups. You might have heard of farmers who increase production by playing music to their animals, recent studies showing that listening to fast music whilst driving increases the rate of car accidents, and the Mozart Effect claims to increase intelligence. While some claims may be exaggerated, there is no denying that music can suggest and affect our state of mind. But the reason for this is very mysterious. Why should organised sounds affect us to such an extent that billions are spent annually making music?
We're sure some professors may have written volumes about this topic but don't worry, we won't! We just think that it might be useful to share some thoughts on this question, since it is so relevant to other explorations on the mfiles web-site. We think that the main aspects of music which influence us can be summed up as:
Tempo & Rhythm
Pitch, Melody & Harmony
Pattern recognition
Culture aspects
and we will explore each of these facets in turn.
Tempo & Rhythm
Music tends to have a steady tempo to it, often measured in "beats per minute". A simple observation is that most music is in the range of 50-200 beats per minute, the same as the extreme range of our heartbeats. In general too, the tempo of a piece of music roughly equates with the heartbeat associated with the corresponding physical state or emotion which the music suggests.
Anything in the range 60-80 beats per minute is calm and relaxed, less than 60 is often very relaxed, introspective or even depressed. 80-100 is moderately alert and interested. 100 upwards is increasingly lively, excited or agitated and, since we crave some degree of excitement from our entertainment, 80-120 is quite a common tempo, and even 120-160 is common in some energetic situations. We're not saying that there is an absolute correspondence between heartbeat and music tempo, but there is a strong degree of suggestion between the two. Music moves in time and suggests movement, and we tend to associate music unconsciously with movements made by our bodies while talking, walking, running, dancing, riding, etc.
To illustrate this, note that marches are in duple time (2/4 or 4/4 ) giving that "left, ..., left, ..., left, right, left, ..." feel. In contrast to this 3/4 time seems to completely lack that left-right feel, and we therefore frequently associate it with circular motions, like swirling waltzes, or roundabouts at the fun-fair. Music suggesting a horse galloping or a train ride is fast with more complicated rhythms representing 4 legs or several sets of wheels.
This latter example illustrates that while tempo sets the basic pace of music, there are many ways in which composers can alter and adjust this using different note patterns or rhythms. Syncopation is a familiar example with notes unexpectedly landing "off the beat", which adds complexity and interest to a basic beat, often turning a simple march tempo into a jaunty swagger (see Ragtime). The rhythm of music can qualify the repetitive nature of the underlying beat by suggesting more frequent or less frequent movement. Even though the tempo of a piece of music might be slow and relaxed, a high frequency of notes can suggest a degree of contained excitement within that relaxed state. But the combination of Tempo and Rhythm has an immediate almost physical impact on our perceptions.
There is also a strong degree of correspondence between tempo and emotions and this is evident from everyday metaphors. In the English language, not only do we talk about "beats" of the heart and "beats" in music, but we also say that something is "upbeat" when it is happy and positive or "downbeat" when something is sad or depressed.
Pitch, Melody & Harmony
Lots of things make noises but in general bigger objects make deeper noises, whether long columns of air or long strings in a musical instrument, big chests, large animal footsteps (like an elephant), or simply large objects generally banging together. Conversely, smaller instruments, short columns of air, short strings or tight strings, small animals (like a mouse) or objects make higher pitched noises. We tend to find large things more threatening than smaller things (part of our evolutionary heritage) so pitch on its own can affect how we percieve sounds and music, providing a basic scale from "high = light, happy, carefree, funny" to "low = dark, sad, ominous, serious". So Pitch on its own affects our perceptions.
A Melody consists of a linear sequence of tones. A good melody (even if it doesn't have words) is often one that we could hum, sing or whistle. In general we prefer melodies where the tones are reasonably close together, with a variety of nice harmonious intervals between them, and a rhythm similar to that of speech. The notes should not be in an extreme range and shouldn't have large awkward jumps between them. The notes should also have durations which are not too short and not too long (often in the range of 0.1 second to 2 seconds). In this way melodies are very similar to sentences that our brains are designed to speak and listen to, although instrumental musical can stretch those boundaries a little. Different types of melodies also help to convey different emotions, for example chromatic melodies or melodies belonging to a minor scale are often seen as darker than melodies from a major scale (see the section on harmony below). Research has also shown that the emotions of melodies mirror the emotions of speech. Just as sad people tend to talk in a monotone, sad music seems to move in very small intervals within a narrow range. In contrast happy people talk using a greater tonal range, and happy music follows this pattern using larger intervals over a wider range.
Unusual things happen when we combine tones of different pitches, called Harmony. Some combinations go well together and some don't. Those notes which combine well seem to be close to what's called the "harmonic sequence". The harmonic sequence is the completely natural set of different notes produced by something vibrating, and is most easily demonstrated musically using brass instruments. The lowest notes of this series are like those produced by a "natural" (without keys) instrument such as a bugle, and include octaves, fifths and thirds. These are just the notes which go well together to make "harmonious" sounds like major chords. On a stringed instrument you can demonstrate the lower notes of the harmonic series by playing the strongest "harmonics" of the strings which divide the length into fractions like halves, thirds, quarters, fifths, etc. These harmonics are always present to varying degrees within all notes, and their proportions help to give sounds their unique "timbre" or colour or tone.
A minor chord differs from a major one by using a "minor third" interval. The minor third is further up the harmonic sequence and therefore sounds remote from the original note, which goes to make the minor chord sound darker and less natural. Other combinations of notes are even more remote on this sequence and can give rise to musical clashes or "dischords". It is worth observing at this point that our equal-tempered method of dividing a music octave into 12 identical intervals produces some notes which are only approximately the exact values of the harmonic series, but nevertheless close enough to deceive most ears. Our long exposure to music based on these 12 notes means that they sound normal anyway.
Pattern Recognition
It is a matter of life and death to most animals that they can focus on important things and ignore unessential ones. Some of this might be instinctive and some learned by experience but at its root it is all about recognising and responding appropriately to certain patterns, maybe weather conditions or vegetation that indicate a good source of food, or shapes or sounds that might indicate danger from a predator.
Human brains in particular seem to have a highly developed and flexible pattern recognition capability. This aspect of our intelligence has allowed us to adapt to many different climates and conditions, make the best use of available shelter and resources, and to build language and culture to communicate to each other and succeeding generations. It also allows us to appreciate and to create pattern for its own sake in the form of visual and aural Arts. The simplest form of pattern is just repetition. If we see something familiar, then it triggers memories and related thoughts, sometimes consciously and sometimes unconsciously. The repetition needn't be exact, but "similar" enough to trigger that familiarity.
Translating this into musical terms, if we hear a similar sound or group of sounds twice, then it clicks with our brains and we recognise this as a Pattern or an association. The pattern is often fairly simple, consisting of a single note or a few notes in sequence. If the sequence of notes is too long, we will struggle to remember them. Conversely if we hear a short sequence of notes repeated many times then this becomes too boring (part of the background which we tend to ignore) and we only notice when there is a change to the sequence. You might have a picture hanging on your wall, but it is so familiar that you don't really notice it any more (until someone moves it or removes it). In the same way, we can block out repetitive noise (road traffic or next door's lawn mower) but immediately notice if it suddenly stops.
Some music is designed to be in the background, unobtrusively creating "atmosphere" or ambience in a restaurant, shop, lift or other public place. Such music (or "muzak") should be ideally of a common volume, timbre and consistency, in other words predictable or "bland"! (It can be annoying if such music is too loud or otherwise obtrusive when you are trying to think or hold a conversation.) Other music is designed to grab your attention, by being loud or otherwise having an immediately distinctive pattern. These two types of music are often played together so that a memorable melody is distinctive and stands out from a simple accompaniment of chords and repeating percussion. Melody and accompaniment is like foreground and background in a visual scene.
In many ways writing music is trying to find a good balance between repetition (pattern) and novelty (not conforming to a pattern). If there is too much pattern then it becomes the norm, our brains then "tune it out" and it becomes part of the background while we turn our attention onto other things. If the music changes and something new arises, it will grab our attention again. But too much novelty is hard to relate to. Music which is ever changing without an immediately recognisable pattern can seem like just random "white noise" and again we "tune it out" as being uninteresting and relegate it to the background. Some composers have experimented with ways of generating musical patterns which might be mathematically perfect, but if our ears don't notice these patterns the music becomes an academic exercise and fails to move the average listener.
Musical patterns help us recognise different instruments or singers in a piece of music. Patterns of different types also give rise to figures, phrases, themes, melodies, forms and styles. These structures help musicians to provide both recognition and variety in music, and optimise the listener's experience by providing works that seems consistent and balanced yet with interesting features to make the experience enjoyable. Sometimes people listen with concentration to music and become involved with it, but at other times the music is playing in the background (see Film Music) or accompanying another activity. Nevertheless the unconscious experience can have an affect on us, largely due to Pattern Recognition.
Cultural Aspects
So far, based upon tempo, pitch and pattern, we have a Natural basis for some of the foundations for music and how it affects us. Indeed it is quite possible that aliens on another planet who also respond to sounds, might also share some of these basics and understand aspects of our music or us theirs. But there is no denying that many aspects of music appreciation and music psychology are learned by repeated exposure (both passive where children are exposed to various types of music, and active where individuals seek out types of music that interest them.)
The Cultural aspects of music are built upon these basic foundations, and evolve over time into complex conventions which are passed on from generation to generation. The relative isolation of different communities during this musical development mean that they are likely to evolve in different directions. Then later cross-fertilisation between different cultures can lead to the introduction of new elements which are initially molded to fit the adopting culture and then evolve further. With increased means of communication across the globe we now have some familiarity with the music of different cultures and can perhaps recognise the region of origin, though there is no denying that many old forms of world music are being "westernised".
As well as recognising music of different countries, we also recognise lots of different styles of music like Latin dance styles, Blues music, Classical, Rock and Roll, Viennese waltzes, Hymns, R&B, Techno, military Marches, Ragtime or Jazz. The distinguishing features of these styles might include particular rhythms, tempi, themes, instruments or music structures or combinations of these. The culture of music is such that we share a common set of associations with different music styles, linking some with parts of the world, certain periods in history, or certain groups of people. In some cases this might be amazingly closely defined sub-styles of music which to people of another "culture" might all sound "the same", but sometimes it can be as simple as a certain instument or rhythm being enough to suggest the style. Because of these associations we might be drawn towards or away from certain styles of music, such that we may enjoy Tibetan music because it is linked to our faith, or perhaps we hate Rock and Roll because our parents love it. So as well as a large set of cultural music associations, we have some very individual associations (maybe even a favourite song, singer or composer) which alter our musical perceptions and appreciation.
Conclusions and further information
We haven't set out to define music and don't believe that it is possible. But looking at some of the parameters which combine to form music, we observe that some of these are quite natural in origin, coming from the natural world of sound production, some stem from our bodies physically and the natural movements, sounds and rhythms inherent in them, and others from the way our brains analyse data. These at a very basic level tell us something about why music affects us so. On top of this, on a more complex level, there is a whole host of cultural developments and conventions that we have constructed. See our section on film music cliches and decide which of these have a natural basis, or which are simply cultural conventions. Also see our article on Humour in Music which explores some of these questions in a light-hearted way.
If you are interested in the psychology of music, there are many reference books which you might want to check out. Philip Dorrell has written a book on the subject called "What is Music?" whose central theory states that "music is a super-stimulus for a hitherto unknown aspect of speech perception". The book goes on to explain many different facets of music perception. Much more information about the book can be found at whatismusic.info.
The monthly science magazine Scientific American featured an article in 2004 called Music and the Brain how different brain regions are involved in interpreting music, and how the functions of these regions change with the experience and training undertaken by musicians. And in 2009 the same magazine published some research on ways in which music affects our emotions, called Why Does Music Make Us Feel?, and again in 2012 some research was reported explaining why Music Intervals Sway Moods.
More recently Scientific American reported on research showing that when people sing together, their heartbeats begin to synchronise (article dated 8th July 2013). Then further research showed that it�s not just the beat that affects a walker's pace, different types of music affect stride length even if the music is at the same tempo. In general louder or more agressive music seemed to create longer stride length (article dated 18th July 2013).
The weekly science magazine New Scientist carried a number of articles about the emotional effects of music in its edition of 29th November 2003 under the umbrella title of "The Power of Music", including an interview with the Greek composer Vangelis.
The BBC News web-site reports on studies that show Classical Music is effective when used to deter youths from congregating in places which might might lead to antisocial behaviour.
This video shows that a cockatoo has a sense of rhythm, matching the beat when the tempo changes. Researchers who examined such videos on youtube speculate that the sense of rhythm is linked to parts of the brain used to process and imitate sounds - a talent which many birds have.
This clever video is about the "12 Tone" system of creating melodies but it touches on many of elements discussed in this article, particular pattern recognition and cultural expectations.
To explore research related to the possible impact of music on brain function and development including the "Mozart Effect", start at the following sites: the Parenting Baby section of the Suzuki Music Academy or MozartEffect.com.
我们大家都会意识到：音乐常常是与“气氛（atmosphere）”联袂而行。我们也许会给一次温馨浪漫的晚餐放上一段轻松惬意的音乐，而在从事某些体力劳动或体育锻炼的当口，或者在较大型的团体中从事社交活动的时候，会听一些比较活泼轻快的。你也可能听说过：农民为提高产量而冲着他们的牲口奏乐的事儿吧。最近的研究显示：一边开车一边听快节奏的音乐，会使车祸率增高；而莫扎特效应（Mozart Effect ）则证明：音乐可以益智。尽管有些证明也许是被夸大了的，但无可否认的是：音乐可以开启和感染我们的心态。然而关于这一点的理由却常常是神秘兮兮。为什么有组织的声音会这么教我们动情，乃至每年花上数十亿来制造音乐？
我们断定：有的教授本是可以就这个话题写上几篇的，可就是不操这份儿心，而我们不是！我们恰恰是想：把有关这个问题的一些想法拿出来与大家一同分享是有益的，因为这个问题与mfiles 网站上的其他一些探讨密切相关。我们认为：音乐对我们的影响，主要可以概括为以下几个方面：
拍速与节奏
音高、旋律与和声
模式识别
文化样式
我们将对这几个方面逐一进行探讨。
music professor
拍速与节奏
音乐倾向于自身有一个稳定的拍速，常常以“拍/每分钟”来确定。初步的观察表明：大多数音乐都在每分钟50—200拍这个范围之内，与我们心跳的速限相同。换作一般的说法，一段音乐的拍速大体相当于与相应生理状态一致的心跳的速度，或者与曲作者所建议的情绪相一致。
heart beat
凡在每分钟60—80拍这个范围内的，都属于“沉稳而松弛地”；小于60 拍则常常属于“非常松弛、熬人地”甚或是“沮丧地”；80—100则属于“适度活泼地、有兴致地”；100以上属于“渐趋活泼地、刺激地”或“焦虑不安地”；而因出于欢乐我们渴望某种程度的刺激，80-120实际上就成了一正常的速度，在某些精力充沛的状态下，甚至连120-160也属于正常。我们这并不是在说：在心跳与音乐的速度之间存在一种绝对对应的关系，而是说：两者之间有很强程度的暗合。音乐依时进行且怂恿律动，而我们在讲话、散步、跑步、跳舞、骑马等等的时候，则会下意识地习惯于用我们的身体合着音乐的节拍做律动。
就此举例来说，进行曲都是给人以“左，...，左，..，.左，右，左，..”这样一种感觉的双拍子（2/4或者4/4）。与此相比，3/4拍似乎就完全没有左、右这种感觉，所以我们经常会随着它做圆周式律动，如各种旋转的华尔兹（swirling waltzes），或者如公共游乐场所里的各种回旋舞（roundabouts）。示意马的奔跑或者一列列车行进的音乐则是快速的，具有用以表现4条腿和几组车轮的更复杂的节奏。
a horse galloping
下面这个例子则是说明：尽管拍速设定了音乐的基础速度，但作曲家仍可有许多方法以不同的音型或节奏来改变和调整。切分法就是其中一个为人熟知的例子，它是使音符骤然“离拍（off the beat）”，从而增加基础拍节的复杂度和趣味，往往是把某个平易行进的拍速转入到一种自信满满的昂首阔步[参见：拉格泰姆(Ragtime)]⑴。通过建议频度比较碎密或比较稀疏的 乐章，可以准予音乐节奏体现预设拍子的反复性。虽然一段音乐的拍速也许很慢、很悠闲，但一些音符的高频度出现，却可以在这种悠闲的境界内表现某种程度的有节制的兴奋。然而，拍速与节奏联手，对我们的知觉认知有着几乎是直接的生理上的影响。
拍速（ tempo ）与情绪（emotions ）之间也存在很强的连通性，这一点可从日常的诸多隐喻中得到证明。在英语中，我们不仅谈论心脏的“beats（拍）”和音乐的“beats（拍）”，而且当事物是教人幸福乐观的和积极向上的时候，我们也说"upbeat" ⑵，或者在事物是教人悲观或沮丧的时候，我们又说“downbeat”⑶。
音高、旋律与和声
elephants make deep sounds and mice make high-pitched sounds
很多事物都可以产生声响，但一般而言，较大的物体制造的声响会更深远，无论是乐器上的大型吹管或者长大的弦、大个的箱体、大型动物（如：大象）的脚步发出的声响，还仅仅是大型物体一般相撞发出的声响。与此相反，形制较小的乐器，短吹管、短弦或绷紧的弦，小动物（如：老鼠）或小物体所产生的声响，则具有较高的音调。我们倾向于认为：更具威胁性的是较大的事物，而不是较小的事物（小，也是我们人类进化遗传的一部分），因此，较小事物的自有音高才会左右我们如何感知声音和音乐，为我们提供一个由”高=明亮，惬意，快活，有趣“到”低=暗淡，悲伤，不祥，庄重“的基础音阶。所以，影响我们知觉的，是较小事物的自有音高（Pitch ）。
a melody of 3 notes
旋律（Melody ）是由相继发声的音调的线性序列所组成。好的旋律（尽管没有唱词），我们往往会去低吟之、歌唱之或以口哨吹之。一般而言，我们更喜欢这样一种 境况中的旋律，即：其旋律音适度密集；各音之间的音程多种多样、美妙和谐；且节奏近似于言语。各音不应该处于某一极端的音域内，音与音之间也不应当有大得不适宜的跳跃。各音还须有一定的持续时间，既不是太短，也不是太长（常常是在0.1至2秒钟的范围内）。依照这种方式，旋律就颇近似于语句了，因为我们的大脑就是被设计来用于说话和聆听的，尽管器乐可以把这些个边界延展那么一点点。不同类型的旋律还有助于表达不同的情绪，例如，半音阶旋律或隶属小调音阶的旋律常常被认为：与出于大调音阶的旋律相比，则显暗淡（参见下面有关和声的章节）。研究还表明：旋律的情绪 ，映射了说话的情绪。正如悲伤之人讲话易于语调单一一样，悲伤的音乐似乎也是在某一狭窄的音域内，以非常小的音程间隔蹒跚。相反，快乐之人讲起话来语调范围就比较大，而快乐的音乐依循的也是这种模式（pattern ），在一个比较宽的音域上面以较大音程间隔游走。
Pythogoras studied harmonics in music
当我们让有着不同音高的乐音联袂合奏的时候，非同寻常的事情发生了，这就是所谓和声（Harmony）。有的联袂联得好，有的则联得不好。那些联得好的各音近似于所谓“和声序列（harmonic sequence，又译：泛音序列、和声模进）”。这个和声序列，是由振动着的物体所产生的不同的乐音完全自然的集合；而在音乐上采用铜管乐器则最易演现这一集合。像由诸如军号这类的“本位音的（natural）”（无阀键的）乐器，发出这个和声序列中的音最少，包括8度和音、5度和音和3度和音。若说联袂联得好、制造出像大三和弦那样“和谐的（harmonious）”声音效果的，正就是这些音。要是在一件弦乐器上，这个和声序列中的音就可以演示得稍多一点，即 ：根据弦的长度将其划分为若干段，如：二分之一、三分之一、四分之一、五分之一等等，这样就可以在各个弦上演奏出最坚实的“和声泛音（harmonics）”。这些和声泛音，在所有的音上，其表现程度是不同的，而其各自的比例亦有助于赋予声音以各自特有的“音色（timbre）”或曰色彩、或曰音调。
without valves a brass instrument sounds the notes of the harmonic series
小三和弦，因采用了“小三度（minor third）”音程而不同于大三和弦。小三度深化了这个和声序列，因而声音便偏离了原音 （original note），这就使 得小三和弦的声音比较暗淡、不大自然。音与音之间其他形式的组合则离这个序列更远，会引起音乐上的冲突（musical clashes ）或曰“不协和（dischords）”。这里值得提请注意的是这样一点：我们用均调的方法将音乐上的一个八度分割为12个均等的音程，从而造出了一些音，这些音仅仅只是近似于这个和声序列的精确值，但却近似得足以蒙骗过大多数人的耳朵。我们长期与基于这12个音的音乐打交道就意味着：无论怎么听，它们听起来都是准的。
模式识别
能否专注于重要的事物而忽略不重要的事物，对大多数动物来说，都是一个生死攸关的问题。这其中有的或许是本能的，有的则是从经验中习得，但归根结底都与识别某些确定的模式并对其作出切当地反应有关，这模式可能是气候条件或植被，因为其兆示了某个上好的食物资源；也可能是某些形状或声音，因为它可能兆示着某个危险的猎食者即将来临。
the human brain is excellent at recognising patterns
尤其是人类的大脑，似乎有着高度发达且柔韧有余的模式识别能力。我们这一方面的才能，使我们得以自适应各种各样的气候与环境条件， 对能用之庇护场所及各种资源皆尽其所用，进而构建使彼此得以沟通的语言及文化且代代相传；还教我们以欣赏和创造本身为目的用视觉和听觉艺术的形式来欣赏和创造模式。模式最简单的形式，就是重复（ repetition）。只要我们看到熟悉的某物，遂就会触发记忆和与之相关的思维，有时是自觉地，有时又是不自觉地。重复不必是精确的，但却“相似”得足以触发那种熟悉感。
we recognise musical patterns just as easily as visual patterns
一旦将这熟悉感转绎为音乐语言来表达，只要我们两次听到一个或一组类似的声音，那么我们的大脑就会受其点拨，从而把这熟悉感识别为某种模式（Pattern ）或曰联想。这种模式通常都相当简易，由单个音或依序逐一排列的几个音构成。要是音列太长的话，我们记住它们就会很费劲。反之，如果我们听一段短的音列多遍地反反复复，顿时就会变得教人厌腻不堪（我们常常易于把它当做背景的一部分而忽视之），而仅留心于：这一序列何时才会有变化。你也许曾把一幅画挂在你家的墙上，对它你是那么熟悉，熟悉到你实际上已不再去留意于它了（直到有人挪动了它或者把它摘了下来）。同理，我们的大脑可以屏蔽掉重复出现的噪音（如：大街上嘈杂的车来车往，或者隔壁剪草机的声音），而当其一旦突然停止，即刻就会引起你的注意。
有些音乐是设计来作为背景的，用以悄然营造饭店、商店、电梯或者其他公共场所里的“气氛”或格调。这类音乐（或曰“密幽咂客（muzak）”）的音量、音色、连贯性，原则上都应该是普普通通的，换言之，应该是非意料之外的或曰“温文尔雅的（bland）”！（当你正在努力思考或正在谈话的时候，如果这类音乐太大声，抑或太突兀，就会教人讨厌。）另一类音乐，其目的在于：攫取你的注意力，不是高声喧嚇，就是以某种不假遮拦的迥异模式。这两种类型的音乐常常一起播放，用以彰显某段值得记忆的旋律是多么与众不同，而且常常因在简易的和弦和简单地不断重复的打击乐的伴奏下而 醒聩震聋。旋律与伴奏，就如视觉场景中的前景与背景。
seeing musical patterns
写作音乐，即是不断尝试用各种各样的方式，在重复（模式）与新奇（不合模式）之间寻找一个优质的平衡。如果模式过多，就会成为一种 惯常（the norm），我们的大脑遂就会“漠视之（tune it out）”，从而成为背景的一部分，这时我们就会把注意力转向其他的东西上面。如果音乐有变化、出现了新的东西，就会再度攫住我们的注意力。但过多的新奇，却很难引发共鸣。变化不断却又没有一个即时可辨识的模式的音乐，听起来可能恰就如无序的“白噪声（white noise）”，这时我们就会把它当作索然无趣而再次“漠视之”，遂将其贬谪为背景。有些作曲家，则尝试以各种方法生成各式各样的音乐模型，这些音乐模型也许在数学上是完满的，但是，如果人们的耳朵不理会这些模型，那么这类音乐就成了一种学术行为而无法感动一般听众。
音乐模式有助于我们识别音乐篇章中不同的乐器或歌手。不同类型的模式还可以生发各种音型、乐句、主题、旋律、形式和风格。这些结构体有助于音乐人呈显音乐中的识别与变化，通过交付看似与趣味取向相合且相称的作品来营造可愉悦之乐事，从而完备听众的听觉经验。有时，人们潜心聆听音乐并为音乐所牵动，而在另外一些时候，音乐不是游弋于背景之中（参见：电影音乐（Film Music））就是 陪衬于别的什么活动之中。不过，如果这种下意识的经验对我们会有什么影响的话，主要就是缘于模式识别（Pattern Recognition）。
文化样式
从古暨今，由于从速度、音高、模式出发，我们对于音乐上的一些基础性要素便有了一个“自然的（Natural）”基础，而且它是这么地影响着我们。当然，另外某个星球上对声音也会有反应的外星人，或许也共同享有这一基础中的某些要素，因而也能理解我们的音乐样式，抑或我们的就是他们的，这都是颇有可能的。但这丝毫也没有否认：音乐欣赏与音乐心理的许多样式须通过不断的重复性接触来学习的（既包括被动地接触，如儿童那样置身于各种类型音乐之中；也包括主动地接触，如成年个人那样搜寻引起他们兴趣的音乐类型。）。
castanets, guitars and flamenco foot stamping are associated with the music of Spain 音乐的各种文化样式就是建立在这些基本要素基础上的， 而且随着时间的推移又逐渐演进成为代代相传的各种复杂的约定。在音乐的这一发展进程中，各不同社群的相对隔绝表明：他们很可能是在各个不同的方向上演进。至于嗣后各异质文化间的杂交，则会导致新的文化元素的引进 。这些新的元素，起先是被塑造来以适应正在采用中的文化的，继而是其进一步的深化。现在，凭藉业已增强的遍及全球的通讯手段，我们对各异质文化的音乐多少也亲近了些，也许还能识别 它们是源自哪个地区的，尽管也不否认：世界音乐中许多旧有的形式正在被“西化（westernised）”之中。
sketch of jazz musicians
同把音乐识别（区分）为不同文化的音乐一样，我们也将音乐识别（区分）为许多不同的风格，如拉丁舞曲风格（ Latin dance styles）、布鲁斯音乐（Blues music）、古典音乐（Classical）、摇滚（Rock and Roll）、维也纳华尔兹（Viennese waltzes）、圣歌（Hymns）、节奏布鲁斯（R&B）、忒科闹（Techno：电子技术合成音乐）, 军营进行曲（military Marches）、拉格泰姆（ Ragtime ）或爵士乐（ Jazz）。这些风格都有着各自鲜明的特征，当包括：各自特有的节奏、拍速、主题、乐器或音乐结构或这等的组合。使我们得以享有共同的诣趣从而使不同的音乐风格得以交流，同时也连接着世界各地、历史上的某几个时期，或者某些人群（groups of people）的，正是音乐文化。其中有些个案，将其定义为亚风格（sub-styles ）的音乐，可谓出奇地贴切，这类风格的音乐，也许在别个”文化“的人们听起来都是“一样的（the same）”，而且有时竟会简单到仅有某一件乐器或某一种节奏，足可称其为亚风格。由于这些交流，我们可能：要么亲近于某些音乐风格，要么排斥之。例如：我们会喜欢 西藏音乐（Tibetan music），因为它连动了我们的信仰；抑或，也许因为我们的父母爱好摇滚，所以我们就厌恶它。与大的文化意义上的音乐交流一样，我们也有一些非常个人化的交流（甚或可以是某一最喜爱的歌曲、某位最喜爱的歌手或最喜爱的作曲家），这种交流同样也会改变我们的音乐感知和鉴赏。
结语与进一步的阅读
loudspeaker and music notes
我们并没有打算给“音乐”下定义，因为我们觉得这事儿不可能做得好。但是，从聚合成音乐的一些功能特征着眼，我们就会觉察到：这其中有些东西完全是肇于自然的，即来自大自然的声音世界；有些则源于我们的肉体及其内在固有的自然律动、声响和节奏；另外一些则来路于我们的头脑对数据的分析。位于极为基础的层面的这些特征向我们告示了：音乐何以会这么让我们动情的根由。在这一层面之上，即就更为复杂的层面而言，还有整整一大堆文化上的进展以及我们迄今都还在构建的文化约定。可看看我们的《电影音乐的陈腔老调 （film music cliches） 》一节，判定一下其中哪些保有一个自然的基础，哪些仅仅是文化约定。还可参阅我们的《音乐中的幽默（Humour in Music）》一文，该文以轻松愉快的方式对这些问题做了 某些探讨。
如果你对音乐心理学感兴趣的话，有许多可能是你想要借阅的参考书。菲利普·多莱尔（Philip Dorrell ）关于这个话题写有一本名为《音乐是什么？（What is Music?）》的书，其中心理论是说：“音乐是一种超刺激（ super-stimulus ），属于语音感知上的一个迄今尚不为人知的方面。”该书继而又从许多不同的侧面对音乐感知做了进一步的解释。有关这本书的更多信息可以在whatismusic.info.上找到。
月刊科学杂志《科学美国人（Scientific American）》2004年特刊有一篇题为《音乐与大脑（Music and the Brain） 》的文章，文章讲述了：不同的脑区是如何参与解释音乐的，这些区域的功能又是如何随着经验的积累以及经过音乐家精心的训练而发生改变的。2009年，该杂志发表有论及音乐影响我们情感的方式的相关研究，题为《 音乐何以教我们动情？（Why Does Music Make Us Feel?）》；2012年又报道了若干研究，对为什么《音程会左右我们的心情（Music Intervals Sway Moods）》作了说明。
《科学美国人》最近刊发的研究表明：人们一起歌唱时，他们的心跳即开始同步（文章发表日期2013年7月8日）。此后进一步的研究显示：并不只是拍节会影响步行者的步速，而且不同类型的音乐还会影响到步长，即使音乐的拍速是一样的。一般而言，较嘹亮或较激昂的音乐大概会导致较大的步长（文章发表日期2013年7月18日）。
周刊科学杂志《新科学家（New Scientist）》2003年11月29日那一版，在《音乐的力量》这一综合标题下面，刊有几篇有关音乐的情感效应的文章，另附有一篇与希腊作曲家范吉利斯（Vangelis）的访谈。
《BBC新闻（BBC News） 》网站经常报道一些证明古典音乐可以有效地用于预防青少年四处拉帮结伙因而导致扰乱社会的行为的研究。
这个视频则是表现：凤头鹦鹉有节奏意识，能够随着各种拍速的变化变换拍节。研究人员在验看了YouTube 上的这类视频之后表示：节奏意识系于用来加工和模仿声音的脑区——很多鸟都有这个天分。
这个有创意的视频（clever video），则是关于创构旋律的“12音（12 Tone）”体系的，涉及本文已经讨论过的许多元素，特别提到了模式识别和文化期待（cultural expectations）。
要探寻有关音乐对大脑功能及发育的可能影响的研究，包括“莫扎特效应”，可从下列站点起步： 铃木音乐学院（Suzuki Music Academy）的育婴（Parenting Baby）或 MozartEffect.com.。
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